FROM ALCHEMY TO CHEMISTRY (Part-II)

"The time has come", the Walrus said,
"To talk of many things:
Of shoes - and ships-and sealing wax-
Of Cabbages - and kings-And why the sea is boiling hot -
And whether pigs have wings".

-Lewis Carroll in Through the Looking-Glass

"Every theory which urges men to labour and research, which excites acuteness and sustains perseverance, is a gain to science; for it is labour and research which lead to discoveries". 

-Justus von Liebig (1803-73)

One of the earliest historical mentions of alchemy is found in a Chinese imperial edict issued in 144 BC. The edict enacted that coiners and those who made counterfeit gold should be punished by public execution. It is said that the Chinese Emperor Wen (about 175BC) had allowed alchemistic practices to make gold and much alchemistic gold was made. But then such alchemistic gold was not real gold. So eventually the practitioners of such art were left with nothing except empty boasts and many of them turned to brigandy or robbery. This was the reason why Emperor Jing (Ching) issued the abovementioned edict. However, in 133 BC Emperor Wu honoured an alchemist, who claimed to have discovered the secret of immortality by worshipping the deity of the Stove. It seems reasonable to believe that when alchemy had to be prohibited by law it must have had a fairly lengthy previous history. We are told that the first Chinese alchemist was Dzou Yen who flourished in the 4th century BC.

The Chinese had a theory of the constitution of matter. According to this theory the combination of five elements (Wu-hsing): metal, wood, earth, water and fire gave rise to all material substances. The idea of five elements was recognised as early as the 12th century BC. Almost everything including planets, colours, virtues was classified into five categories. Another important idea was the doctrine of Yin and Yang, the two great contraries. There is dispute as to whether the idea of Yin-Yang was developed in China or it was brought from the west. All opposite properties were summed up in the two great contraries - Yin, the female principle. and Yang, the male principle. 

Wei Po-Yang (2nd-3rd Century AD)

Taoism, which developed as highly abstract philosophy during the sixth century BC incorporated the ideas of Yin-Yang and the five elements. The central idea of Taoism, as put forward by the founder, Lao Tzu ("the veberable viscount") in his book Tao Te Ching (The Classic Concerning the Way and Values), was that everything is controlled by Tao, a passive force. Tao, which means 'way' or 'path' should be sought by solitude and by various spiritual practices. But after the incorporation of Yin-Yang doctrine and the concept of five elements, the followers of Taoism began to search for the Tao not by mental and spiritual means but by physical actions. This led to the development of an alchemical system with typical Chinese characteristics, probably several centuries before the rise of Alexandrian alchemy. The following quotation from Huai-nan-tzu, a book written from Liu An (died 122 BC), king of Huai-nan and a devout Taoist summarises the cosmology of the Taoists. "Before the universe took any definite form, it was absolutely shapeless and transparent and was therefore called Great Brightness. So Tao originated from emptiness and tranquility. Emptiness and tranquility created space and time, and space and time, created ethereal essence (ch'i). The essence had boundaries. The portion which was thin and volatile floated up to form the sky, and the heavy and dense portion condensed and co-agulated to become the earth. Since it is easier for volatile things to come together than for heavy and dense materials to condense and co-agulate, the sky formed before the earth took definite shape. Yin-Yang resulted from the concentration of the essence of heaven and earth. The essence of Yin-Yang by its concentration formed the four seasons, and the essence of the four seasons by its distribution formed the multitude of things..." 

As mentioned earlier, as early as 144 BC Chinese authorities issued an edict against the makers of counterfeit gold. Following the failure of the attempt of Liu Hsiang a high court official (imperial adviser) to make gold publicly for the emperor in 56 BC the Chinese alchemists became further discredited. Lin Hsiang was allowed to conduct the experiments by the Emperor Suan at Treasury expense. When he failed even after spending a great deal of money he was imprisoned and sentenced to death. However, his sentence was cancelled by the Emperor. Irrespective of these developments alchemists in China continued to pursue their trade. 

In about 142 AD Wei Po-Yang's work Ts'an T'ung Ch'i exclusively devoted to alchemy appeared. Much of the material was of spiritual character. The following paragraph quoted from the book shows how to conceal the method and reagents the author used fanciful names:    "Above, cooking and distillation take place in the cauldron; below blazes the roaring flame. Afore goes the White Tiger, leading the way; following comes the Gray Dragon. The fluttering Scarlet Bird flees the five colours  Encountering ensnaring nets, it is helpless and immovably pressed down, and cries with pathos, like a child after its mother. Willynilly it is put into the cauldron of hot fluid to the detriment of its feathers. Before half the time has passed, Dragons appear with rapidity and in great number. The five dazzling colours change incessantly. Turbulently boils the fluid in the cauldron. One after another, they appear to form an array as irregular as a dog's teeth. Stalagmites which are like midwinter icicles are spit out horizontally and vertically. Rocky heights of no apparent regularity make their appearance, supporting one another. When Yin and Yang are properly matched, tranquility prevails".    The clearest exposition of the alchemy of China is found in the Pao-pu-tzu (it has been translated both as The Master who Preserves Pristine Simplicity and as the Solemn Seeming Philosopher). It was written by Ko-Hung who lived in South China from 254 to 334 AD. and it is considered as the greatest alchemical work of China. The first part of Ko-Hung's book entitled Nuy Pe-en or Inner chapters describes transmutation. Ko Hung after explaining the value of the Gold medicine (Chin tau) gave elaborate description of the preparation of different forms of the medicine. In Pao-pu-tzu we also find description of practical chemical operations such as the preparation of stannic sulfide     In China the Deity of the Stove, a beautiful woman dressed in red was regarded as in charge of alchemy besides being in charge of cooking and of preparing medicines. Mercury was regarded as distinctive substance by the Chinese alchemists and they knew how to prepare it from its mineral, cinnabar. They valued cinnabar more than gold as medicine for prolonging life. It is believed that several Chinese Emperors died after consuming mercury compounds for attaining immortality. For centuries the Chinese alchemists indulged in strange practices for obtaining the "medicine" or a "pill" of immortality as well as the substance that could be used to cause transmutation. Often, the transmuting agent was the same substance which produced immortality. Probably the mercury (cinnabar) centred Chinese alchemical thought might have influenced similar ideas in other countries. In the period when alchemy flourished in China it was not isolated from other countries.

The Yueh-chi, a tribe of nomads from northern China driven from their home in 170-150 BC settled in Bactria, the outermost province of the Persian Empire. Chang Kien, the Chinese general and diplomat visited this tribe in 128 BC. He sent a report of his visit to the Emperor Han-Wu-ti. Chang Kien's visit opened the way for trade between these territories and which had far reaching impact as Bactria had strong trade links with the Roman empire  From the 1st century AD the nomadic Kushan tribe occupied Bactria and Buddhism was introduced. This further intensified trade and cultural exchanges between China and Bactria. It may be noted that Buddhism which originated in India spread to China and became its chief home. Besides traders, priests and pilgrims also made the journey from China to Perisa. From the reports left by Fa-Hsien or Fa Xian (early 5th century AD), the Buddhist monk and others, we know that this trade route was kept open for centuries. Arabic traders and travellers also visited China. 

The Chinese alchemists used a wide variety of apparatus. The ting, a cauldron that usually stood on three legs, was the most important piece of equipment used by the Chinese alchemists. It served as a reaction vessel for the experiments. Among other equipments were furnaces, baths, crucibles and stills. The degeneration of Taoist philosophy into a religion of magic had its effect on the development of Chinese alchemy. By the sixth century the Chinese alchemy branched into two streams - exoteric alchemy (wai tan) and esoteric alchemy (nei tan). Among the two branches the esoteric alchemy which became more predominant had no experimental approach and it used the terminology of chemicals and laboratory operations to express mystical and philosophic concepts. Even the exoteric alchemy which was still based on chemical methods became lost in superstition.

   Ko-Hung (254-334)

Albert of Bollastadt (c.1200-80) or Albertus Magnus (Abert the Great) is considered to be the first important European alchemist. One of the important contributions made by Albertus Magnus was his studies on arsenic. His description of arsenic was so clear that he was sometimes called its discoverer. Of course, it is most likely that arsenic was known to earlier alchemists, though in impure form. It was through Albertus Magnus that Aristotelian philosophy grew to be important for European scholarship of the later Middle Ages or modern times. Besides his other works Albertus Magnus wrote a treatise on alchemy.   

Chinese alchemical furnace         Chinese  furnaces containing water

Roger Bacon, who was also called 'the wonderful Doctor' (Doctor Mirabilis), was termed by Friedrich Heiurich Alexander Humboldt (1769-1859)' 'the greatest apparition of the Middle Ages' and by George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956) 'one of the greatest thinkers of all ages'. Roger Bacon was the first exponent of the inductive method in science, that is, of reasoning based upon accurate observation and experiment.  Arnold of Villanova (1240-1313) was an important figure, in early European alchemical circles. He was born near Valencia in a poor family .

However, he took full advantage of the education given him by Dominicians (A Roman Catholic order of friar founded by St. Dominic and formally organised at Bologna in AD 1220-21. Their purpose was preaching and teaching). He studied medicine at Naples. Besides being a famous physician (he was frequently summoned to treat popes and kings and other nobilities) and alchemist Arnold was also an astrologer, a social reformer and a diplomat   He wrote several works on alchemy and many more have been wrongly attributed to him. Among his genuine works the longest one is called 'The Treasure of Treasures, Rosary of the Philosophers, and Greatest Secret of all Secrets'. It became immensely popular among the alchemists and set the fashion for many later alchemical 'Rosaries'. It appeared that Arnold did some practical chemistry, for example he gave an account of the dry distillation of human blood from an alembic. Arnold travelled extensively in Spain, France, Italy and even North Africa.

The name of Raymond or Raman Lully (1225-1315) is often associated with the name of Arbold of Villanova. A number of books on alchemy are ascribed to Lully. However, none of them seems to be authentic. It is also well-known that he disbelieved in the possibility of the existence of a transmuting agent. However, the alchemists did consider him an important member of their community. 

John Destin (also known as Dastyn, Dausten, Daustein and other variants), who lived in the first half of the fourteenth century, was the foremost alchemist of his time. Very little is known about him except that    he was a member of a religious order and lived with extreme frugality. He wrote on alchemical matter to John XXII , who was Pope from 1316 to 1334. At the time of John XXII the seat of Papacy was at Avignon, a town in south-eastern France. Seeing the large amount counterfeit gold in circulation France John XXII issued a decretal against alchemical practices and it was John Destin who took up cudgels on the side of the alchemists and wrote to the Pope explaining 'the truth about the most noble matter, which according to tradition of all philosophers, transforms any metallic body into very pure gold and silver".  

Unfortunately we do not know anything about the most important of the European medieval alchemists except that he was probably a Spaniard and wrote about 1300 A.D. He wrote under the name of Geber, the Arabic alchemist. He was the first to describe sulphuric acid and the formation of strong nitric acid. It may be noted here that the discovery of the mineral acids was the most important chemical advance after that of the successful production of iron from its ore.

The writings of Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon and their contemporaries made such an impact that in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries numerous spurious works appeared under such names as 'Albertus Magnus', 'Roger Bacon' and others of accepted authority.

It is generally believed that alchemy appeared in India in 5th or 6th century AD and it greatly prospered for the next 7 or 8 centuries. It may be noted here that during the same period tantrism, flourished, an esoteric system of diverse religious practices for attaining not only material prosperity and immortality but also unity with the divine. Tantrism formed the basis of esoteric systems of meditation in both Hinduism and Buddhism. It was the Hindu tantriks who developed the mercury-based alchemy in India and it related to the male-female symbolism (Shiva and Parvati). So like elsewhere alchemical idea in India developed around a male/female symbolism. Mercury was regarded as male principle (symbolically as the seminalism of Shiva) and sulphur as the female principle (symbolism as the menstrual fluxes of Shiva's consort or celestial nymphs).

It has been argued that the Indian tantrism during its diversified growth had absorbed some Chinese elements. The orthodox tantrik texts like Yamala mention that a tantrik must visit a place called Mahachina for attaining Mahasiddhi. It is believed that the Buddhist alchemist Nagarjuna went to Mahachina under the name of Vasishtha for the purpose. Some of the tantrik gods/goddesses are believed to be Chinese in origin. Whatever might be its origin alchemy in India developed with typical Indian characteristics. Even the male-female symbolism found a different expression. While in the Chinese alchemy, mercury is the female principle and sulphur the male principle, it is the opposite in India. In Sanskrit alchemy is referred to as Rasavidya and the alchemist as Rasavadin. 

Some of the well-known Indian alchemists were : Adima, Chandrasana, Lankesa, Visharada, Kapali, Matta, Mandavya, Bhashkara, Shurasenaka, Ratnakosha, Shambhu, Sattvika, Naravahana, Indrada, Gomukha, Kambali, Vyadi, Nagarjuna, Surananda, Nagabodhi, Yasodhona, Khanda, Kapalika, Brahma, Govinda, Lampaka and Hari. These 27 alchemists were considered as the custodians of rasavidya in India. Indian alchemical thought was not based on any distinct indigenous theory. However, Indian alchemists had developed elaborate systematic procedures and operations to attain their ultimate alchemical goal - to find the Elixir of Life and the transmutation of the base metals into gold or silver. Even though a large number of people had abiding faith in alchemy, the number of the actual practitioners of alchemy was very small. This was because the rigours of the faith were as mysterious as they were exacting.Not all could become alchemists. To become an alchemist one had to have honesty, self-control and sincerity of purpose. Moreover the fear of god was considered an essential component for practicing alchemy. 

The laboratory of Indian alchemists was known as rasashala - a place, where the alchemists carried out their various operations under the benign influence of the rasalinga, a symbol of esoteric potentiality. Rasalinga was either a gold amalgam prepared by rubbing gold and mercury or a compound of mercury and sulphur shaped into a linga.

The Rasaratnasamuchchaya describes how and where a rasasala be established : "The laboratory is to be erected in a place rich in medicinal herbs. It should be spacious, furnished with four doors and decorated with the portraits of divine beings. It should have several types of apparatus or contrivances. The phallus of mercury (rasalinga) in the east, furnaces in the south-east, instruments in the south-west, washing operation in the west, and drying operations in the north-west. These and other ingredients necessary for alchemical operations should be installed with chantings. There should be the Kosthi apparatus (for extraction of essences), pair of bellows, pastel and mortar, sieves of varying degrees of fineness, earthen material for the crucibles, dried cow-dung cakes for heating purposes, retorts of glass, iron pans, conch shells, etc." Some of the Yantras (apparatus and appliances) used by Indian alchemists were: Musa Yantra (the crucible), Kosthi (for extraction of essences) Svedani Yantram (used for shearing purpose), Patana Yantram (used for purposes of sublimation or distillation), Vidya dhara Yantram (used for extracting mercury from cinnabar), Valuka Yantram (for heating substances uniformly), Dhupa Yantram (for carrying out fumigation of the leaves of gold or silver with the fumes of sulphur or arsenic substances), Lavana Yantram (an iron tube substitute for the glass bottle), bhudhara Yant  besides srjuna, Rasarnava (author unknown!), Rasendrachudamani by Somadeva, Rasaratnasamuchchaya by Vagbhata, Rasaprakashasudhakara by Yashodhara, Rasaratnakara by Nityanatha Siddha, Rasendrachintamani by Ramesvara Bhatta, RasenRasasara by Govindacarya, Rasakaumudi by Jnana Chandra, Rasabhesajakalpa by Suryapandita, Rasasanketakalika by Chamunda (Chuda), Lohapaddhati by Sureshvara, Kankaligrantha by Narasimha Swotri, Rasamuktavali by Devanatha, Rasapaddhati by Bindu Pandita, Rasamrita by Rameshvara, Rasanaksatramalika by Mathanasimha, Rasendrasarasamgraha by Gopal Krisna Kaviraja, Pradayoge Shastran of Shivarama Yogin, Rasaratnamola of Narasimha Kaviraja Rasamangala by Gahananda Muni and Rasarajasankara by Rama Krishna. There are some other works whose authorship or dates are not known. Alchemical ideas are also found in some tantrik texts like Matrakabhedatantram and Rasarnavakalpa of the Rudrayamala in Sanskrit.  

We also find alchemical or related texts in other languages like Tamil, Telugu, Kannad, Malayalam, Bengali, Marathi, Oriya and Gujarati. There are more than two hundred works in Tamil on the Siddha System of medicine having alchemical ideas.  Plants occupied an important place in the practices of Indian alchemists. More than two hundred names of plants are mentioned in different texts of Rasashastra. The Indian alchemists (rasavadins) treated the minerals and metals with one medicinal plant or the other to render them the desirable iatno chemical properties. Even mercury considered to be divine was subjected to this process. The Matrakabhedatantram sates : "mercury cannot be reduced to bhasma without the help of medicinal plant". The plants were referred to as divyausadhi (divine medicinal plants).   Mercury is considered to be the king of rasas and it is referred to by various names like Parada, Rasa, Suta, Maharasa, Rasendra, Svarnakaraka, sarvadhatupati, Shivaja, Shivavirya, and Haravija. There are detailed description of a number of compositions with mercury as the chief ingredient, which were presumed to be potent for bestowing happiness and worldly prosperity on man leading him ultimately to a state of eternal bliss. 

In Indian alchemical texts the chemical substances have been divided into five main categories namely maharasa, uparasa, dhatu, ratna and visa. There are eight maharasas namely abhraka (mica) vaikranta (a precious stone having eight surfaces and six angles) Maksika (copper pyrites) Vimala (iron pyrites), SilaJatu (Bitumen), sasyaka (copper sulphate), chapala (a compound of bismuth or selenium) and rasaka. The eight Uparasas are Gandhaka (sulphur), Gairika (red ochre), Kasisa (iron sulphate), Tuvari (alum)   talaka (orpiment), Manahsila (Relgar), Anjana (collyrium; compounts of antimony) and Kankustha (probably tinstone or cassiterite), The category of dhatus include seven metals namely svarna (Gold) rajata or Tara (Silver), tamra (copper) Loha, (Iron) Naga, (Lead), Vanga, (tin), Jasada (zinc). Three alloys namely Brass (pittala), Bell-metal, Kamsya and a mixture of five metals (Vartka) were also placed under this catagory). The precious gems were placed under the catagory of Ratnas. The important gems used by Indian alchemists are: Vikranta (also grouped under maharasa) surjakanta (sunstone), Chandrakanta (Moonstone), hiraka (diamond), moautika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (Lapis Lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (Sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby). Various plant products and minerals are   included in the category of visa.    In the above we had briefly described the origin of alchemy and the main strands of alchemical theories practices - Greek, Arabic, Chinese, European and Indian. While alchemists continued their search for their ultimate goal-Philosopher's Stone and or Elixir of Life, the art of practical chemistry developed and chemical processes became part of medicine. Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim (1493-1541) who called himself Paracelsus gave alchemy a new orientation and endowed it with a fresh stimulus. Paracelsus viewed alchemy in a much broader context. To him alchemy signified any process in which natural products were made fit for a new end including processes such as working iron or baking bread. Besides the traditional mercury and sulphur as components of metals, Paracelsus added a third component, salt. Paracelsus developed the theory of the tria Prima according to which all things are born and generated from three principles, "phlegma, fat, and ash". The phlegma is Mercurous, the fat is sulphur, and the ash is salt. He also introduced a new era of iatrochemistry - the art of transforming bodies and substances from a medical point of view. Paracelsus was propagandist for a new order in medicine and alchemy. 

Paracelsus viewed alchemy in a much broader context. To him alchemy signified any process in which natural products were made fit for a new end including processes such as working iron or baking bread. Besides the traditional mercury and sulphur as components of metals, Paracelsus added a third component, salt. Paracelsus developed the theory of the tria Prima according to which all things are born and generated from three principles, "phlegma, fat, and ash". The phlegma is Mercurous, the fat is sulphur, and the ash is salt. He also introduced a new era of iatrochemistry - the art of transforming bodies and substances from a medical point of view. Paracelsus was propagandist for a new order in medicine and alchemy. 

Because of much fantasy and mystical speculation in the writings of Paracelsus his ideas which eventually changed the course of chemical development did not begin to spread immediately. The works of Basil Valentine resemble those of Paracelsus in many respects. The most famous of the books of Basil Valentine is the Triumphal Chariot of Antimony published in 1604. This is regarded as the first monograph devoted to the chemistry of a single metal. Writings ascribed to Basil Valentine contain apparently first notices of many chemical reactions and products. Much of Valentine's genuine chemical information is contained in The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony.   Alchemy started drifting from its main obsession of gold making and gradually metamorphosed into chemistry.

- Subodh Mahanti