Want to see good, informative and entertaining Indian science programmes on television? Who would say 'no' to this proposition? Definitely not the viewers! The only ones who may appear unconvinced of the need for such programmes, as of now, are the advertisers and those who run and manage various television channels. Else, how would one explain almost a total lack of effort to build up or develop dedicated viewership and niche slots for science-based programmes by various television channels, including Doordarshan's? 'Reasons'  really excuses, if you ask me  that have often been trotted out by most of the channels go something like this : "Science does not sell", or "there are no takers for science programmes", or that "no advertisers want to sponsor science programmes".

What does one make of these reasons or excuses, in the face of strong evidence to the contrary, i.e. that science sells and that there are takers of all ages for good science programmes and other science materials like books, kits, cassettes, slide sets, charts etc. everywhere and all over the country? We have letters, emails, phone calls from listeners and viewers of our popular science programmes on radio and TV respectively and sales of popular science materials at book fairs and from our sales outlets around the country!

The inescapable conclusion is that convictions or feelings of present-day advertisers and/or television channel managers/ owners against the saleability of science are not based on or backed by any scientific studies or hard evidence. Notwithstanding all this, there is a strong case as it is for promoting good science programmes on radio and television to spread awareness and understanding about scientific aspects of events, natural phenomena and of issues/projects involving technological choices that have to made by the country in trying to chart a course for its all round development.

Thus, even if there were no takers presently, we would need to consciously and actively make efforts to build and promote a very large listenership and viewership base for popular science programmes on radio and television in the country. To bring this about several new partnerships and collaborations would have to be forged and old ones revived and/or strengthened. The first and foremost requirement for building audiences is the existence of well-made quality programmes on a variety and range of subjects of interests to the listening/viewing public. Though nuclei for this have already been created, a lot more work would be needed. Different radio and television channels would need to create and build up their own niche slots for science programmes.

But to complete the picture, and to make this all happen on a sustainable basis, we would need a new breed of bright marketing minds who would help design strategies and new and attractive ways of packaging science programmes to create strong demand and a ready and competitive market for them where almost none exists now, at least among the big advertisers. Such marketing efforts have not yet been mounted with any seriousness, even though good science programmes on radio and television in the past have been liked and appreciated by audiences all over the country.

There is no doubt that such a market is there and waiting to be discovered. Why do I say that? It is really very simple! The prosperity, continued well-being and future growth of all business and industrial enterprises depend, one way or another, on the technologies they are able to acquire/develop and deploy for whatever they do _ and perhaps even more on the scientific and technical human power that they employ to harness these technologies. Moreover, it is the general public, the common people, who ultimately are the end-users of their products and services. And there can hardly be any doubt that, given a choice, business houses and industries would much rather sell their wares to scientifically aware and informed customers. For this is sure to make life easier for their maintenance and customer relations departments! If that be so, wouldn't it be in their own interest to invest at least a part of their spending on advertisements consciously towards this end  i.e. toward making

people scientifically and technologically better informed and better aware, by promoting and sponsoring science-based and scientific programmes on radio and television and by ensuring that these are heard/viewed by the largest possible audiences.

Such a thing has already been done in the case of sports, especially cricket. It may take a little more doing to achieve something similar for science & technology, but I am sure it can be done.

Any volunteers equal to the challenge from among the marketing professionals, or fresh graduates specialising in advertising & marketing? We would love to hear from you.

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For over 400 million years fishes have been swimming in the world's seas. Fossils of bones resembling the armour of fishes like pteraspis and cephalaspis are found in the Ordovician geologic period (360-400 million years ago). The evolution of fish-types was a gradual process. Fishes area among the most colourful of animals, perhaps next only to birds. Like plants and flowers some varieties of fishes are also kept in homes and offices (in aquaria) to add beauty andcharm. But then the most feared of all marine creatures is also a fish - the great white shark. Fishes are second only to insects in the largeness of population. Otherwise they outnumber all other vertebrates - mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians put together.

Fishes are among the most widely distributed of all animals. There are about 20,000 to 30,OOO species of fishes occurring worldwide in seas and fresh water. In fact, the range of fish that live in rivers, lakes and seas is enormous - from the great whale shark (Rhiniodon typus) to the tiny pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea); in between there are thousands of other varieties. Some live in fresh water; others in salt water. The length of adult shark may reach upto 18-20 metres. Pygmy goby is perhaps not only the shortest of all fishes, but also of all vertebrates. When fully matured it measures frorp 12 to 20 millimeters. Schindleria, an odd transparentffsh, is claimed to be the lightest of all fishes. More than 125,000 of these little fish would be required to make up one kilogramme.

The branch of science that deals with fishes,their structure, classification and life history is known as ichthyology. Fishes are exothermic (cold-blooded) -their body temperature changes according to their surroundings. Fishes have streamlined bodies with a covering of bony scales, a fin bearing tail, an anal fin, one or more dorsal fibs and paired lateral, pectoral (just behind the head) and pelvic fins. The fins help to balance and steer the body in its movements through water. A majority of fishes are carnivorous, feeding mainly on other fish and invertebrates, although some eat plants. Most fishes lay eggs. Large numbers of small eggs are laid (up to several millions in some cases) and are usually fertilised externally. In some species internal fertilisation occurs and live young ones may be born. Fishes may be broadly divided into three (not very closely related) groups:

• Bony fishes or osteichthyes, which constitute the majority of living fishes. Some examples of bony fishes are: Carps, catfishes, gold fish, cod and tuna. The skeleton of bony fish is bone, movement is controlled by mobile fins and the body is usually covered with scales. The gills are covered by a single flap.
• The cartilaginous fishes or chondrichthyes. Sharks and rays are members of this group. The cartilaginous fishes are efficient hunters. The skeleton is cartilage (a tough, elastic, whitish animal tissue), the mouth is generally beneath the head, the nose is large and sensitive and there is a series of open gill-slits along the neck region. There are about 600 known species of sharks and rays.
• The Jawless fishes or cyclostomes consisting of hagfishes and lampreys. They are the survivors of a very old and peculiar group. Jawless fishes have a body plan like that of some of the earliest vertebrates that existed before true fishes with jaws evolved. There is no true backbone but a notochord. Hagfishes live in seas only. They are very slimy and feed on carrion and injured fishes. The lamprey attaches itself to the fishes on which it feeds.

Since its inception in 1961 the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) has been playing a pioneering role in human resource development for the fisheries sector in the country. Originally the Institute came into existence as a Government of India set-up at Mumbai with FAO/UNDP assistance. The original objective was to raise qualified and well-trained manpower for handling rapidly expanding fisheries developmental activities in the country. In 1979 CIFE was brought under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Recognising the pioneering role played by it in fisheries education CIFE was accorded the Deemed University status in 1989.

From time to time the scope of the Institute has expanded and its present mandate is :

- To conduct post-graduate and doctoral degree programmes.
- To conduct post-graduate diploma and certificate courses.
- To conduct short and long-term training courses in different specialised disciplines of fisheries science.
- To conduct research in basic disciplines of fisheries.
- To provide institutional consultancy services.

The Institute which started as a small training organisation with just three divisions and a staff strength of 16 has undergone phenomenal expansion. Today CIFE has ten divisions and five sub-centres/aquafarms as shown below:

CIFE Divisions

- Fisheries Resource Management
- Aquaculture
- Aquatic Environment & Pathology
- Genetics Reproduction & Biotechnology
- Nutrition & Aqua Feed Technology
- Engineering & Harvest Technology
- Post-harvest Technology
- Economics & Marketing
- Communication and Extension
- Planning, Statistics & Computer Applications

CIFE sub-centres/aquafarms

1. Inland Fisheries Training Centre, Barrackpore (West Bengal)
2. Aquaculture Research & Training Centre, Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh)
3. Inland Fisheries Operatives Training Centre, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
4. Saline Ecosystem Aquaculture Research Centre, Rohtak (Haryana)
5. Freshwater Fish Farm, Powarkheda, Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh)
 

CIFE has three research-cum-training vessels (M.F.V. Saraswati, M.F.V. Narmada and M.F.V. Sundarbans). It has a small museum and several aquaria.

CIFE will shift from its present location at seven Bungalows, Yari Road Versova, encompassing about 5.5 acres area to a new campus built on a plot of 16.5 acres (the land allotted by the Government of Maharashtra) very close to the present campus.

Post-graduate courses conducted at CIFE include M.F.Sc in Fisheries Resource Management, Inland Aquaculture, Freshwater Aquaculture, Mariculture and Post-harvest Technology and Doctoral (Ph.D.) programmes in Fisheries Resource Management, Inland Aquaculture and Mariculture. Since its inception CIFE has trained more than 4 thousand personnel (which includs over 100 persons from foreign countries) in various aspects of fisheries.

Apart from its academic contributions, CIFE has to its credit notable research achievements. Some of them are :

1. Development of hatchery technology for giant freshwater prawn.
2. Use of artificial seawater as a substitute for natural seawater in giant freshwater prawn hatchery.
3. Development of methods for culture of live food organisms for use in aqua-hatcheries.
4. Culture of brakish water fishes and shrimps in ground saline water ponds of inland states.
5. Pearl culture using freshwater mussels.
6. Culture of mud-crabs in cages.
7. Use of ozone for water quality and disease management in aqua-hatcheries.
8. Development of a new hormonal formulation 'Ovatide' for fish.
9. Development of immuno-diagnostic kits for disease management in aquaculture.
10. Improved techniques of chromosome preparation from shrimps and prawns.
11. CIFE in collaboration with the National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, has developed a simple and reproducible short-term fish cell culture technique.
12. Investigations on certain aspects of culture and breeding of penaeid shrimps.
13. Identification of six species of Jelly fishes, three of catfishes, two of sciaenid fishes and one of octopus as potential sources of bioactive substances.
14. Establishment of toxicity of carp bile and its possible role in causing chronic renal failure or malfunctioning in human beings.

The institute has brought out a number of useful publications in Hindi.It has successfully offered many consultancy services to government and private organisations.

Major central Government Institutes Departments, dealing with one or other aspects of fisheries

1. Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai (Tamilnadu)
2. Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Calcutta
3. Central Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering Training (Ministry of Agriculture), Cochin
4. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin (Kerala)
5. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneshwar (Orissa)
6. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin
7. Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi
8. Fishery Survey of India, Mumbai
9. Institute of Nautical Engineering and Training, Cochin
10. Integrated Fisheries Project, Cochin
11. Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai
12. Marine Products Export Development Authority, Cochin
13.  National Bureau of Fish Genetics Resources (ICAR) Lucknow
14.  National Institute of Ocean Technology, Department of Ocean Development
15.  National Institute of Oceanography, Goa
16.  National Research Centre on Coldwater Fisheries (ICAR), Uttar Pradesh.

In addition there are fisheries colleges, Zoology Departments of various universities and state government institutions.

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An American scholar, David Pingree, has carried out an extensive survey of the literature on Indian astronomy. He states: "At present there exist in India and outside of it some 1,00,000 manuscripts on the various aspects of jyotihshastra. The great majority of these were copied within the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; for manuscripts cannot long survive in India except under exceptional circumstances. We have, therefore, essentially those texts selected for study or composed by the scholars of the Mughal and British rajyas." Many mathematical and astronomical works composed in ancient India still remain untraced.

Even a thousand years ago several important works of ancient Indian astronomy were not easily available. The Central Asian savant al-Beruni (973-1048 A.D.), primarily an astronomer and mathematician, stayed in India for about a decade, learnt Sanskrit, studied Indian shastras and later authored his monumental work India in Arabic. Even at that time, in spite of his best efforts, al-Beruni could not procure a manuscript copy of the Aryabhatiyam, composed by Aryabhata-I in 499 AD. All that al-Beruni could write about Aryabhata's unique contribution is based on BrahmasphutaSiddhanta (628 AD.) of Brahmagupta, a bitter critic of Aryabhata. By writing his work on India, al-Beruni rendered a great service to the Arabic-speaking world of the time (and also India of our time).

The study of Indian mathematics and astronomy was initiated in Europe in the second half of the 17th century. The beginning was made by such French astronomers as J. D. Cassini (1625-1712 A.D.) and Jean Sylvain Beilly (1736-1793 AD.).They were followed by British scholars. In Calcutta the Asiatic Society was founded in 1784 AD. for carrying on researches into the antiquities, literature, history, science, arts, crafts and manufactures of the people of Asia in general and of India in particular. Samuel Davis in England procured a copy of the Surya-Siddhanta with a good commentary, from which he learnt of the existence of a large number of Sanskrit astronomical works. In 1790 John Playfair of Edinburgh University published a long review of Indian astronomical works. But it was John Bentley's study of the Surya-Siddhanta, published in 1788, which left a great impact on the English speaking world.

Next, a thorough study of the available works of Indian mathematics and astronomy was attempted by the Sanskrit scholar Henry Thomas Colebrook (1765-1837). In 1817 he published a long essay on Indian Algebra, which was mainly based on the works of Brahamagupta (628 A.D.) and Bhaskaracharya (1150 AD.). What is worth noting here is that, in spite of his search in many parts of India, he could not obtain a manuscript copy of the Aryabhatiyam!

It was not sufficient only to procure the manuscripts of ancient India's astronomical works; they had to be critically edited and commented on in the light of modern scientific knowledge. This could be done by those Indian scholars who had studied jyotihshastra in the traditional way and had also acquired thorough knowledge of western astronomy and mathematics. This challenge was taken up by Pt. Bapudeo Shastri and Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi, both teachers in the Banaras Government Sanskrit College. The Sanskrit College (initially Sanskrit Pathashala) was established in 1791 at the instance of Jonathan Duncan, the then Resident of Banaras. With the efforts of several scholars, both Indian and foreign, the college had become a valuable repository of manuscripts relating to jyotisha and many other classical subjects.

First, let us have a look at the pioneering contribution made by Pt. Bapudeo Shastri (1821-1890). He was born in a village called Toke on the Godavari in Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. His real name was Nrisingha, but his parents lovingly called him 'Bapu'. Thus, later on he came to be known as Bapudeo Shastri.

A brilliant boy, Bapu had his early education in a Marathi Pathashala of Nagpur.There he also had the opportunity to study Bhaskaracharya's Lilavati and Bijaganita from a Sanskrit scholar. Bapudeo's aptitude for mathematics was noticed by Lancelot Wilkinson, the Agent in Sehore state, now in Madhya Pradesh. Wilkinson took the young man to Sehore and got him admitted there in the Sanskrit Pathashala. There Bapudeo got the opportunity to study advanced works of mathematical astronomy, both Indian and European.

It was with Wilkinson's support that Bapudeo Shastri was appointed mathematics teacher in the Sanskrit College at Varanasi in 1842 AD. Here Bapudeo Shastri wrote several works, big and small, on mathematics and Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi astronomy. He helped Wilkinson in translating (1860-1922) into English parts of Bhaskaracharya's Siddhanta-Shiromani. Bapudeo himself translated the Surya-Siddhanta into English which was published from Calcutta in 1861 AD. He also published, with his own exposition, three books of Bhaskaracharya -- Lilavati, Bijaganita and Ganitadhyaya. He also wrote some books in Hindi. In 1887 the Government honoured him with the title 'Mahamahopadhyaya' .

Pt. Bapudeo Shastri was very much in favour of reforming the traditional Panchanga (almanac). He was a staunch supporter of the sayana system, but a section of the Varanasi Pandits bitterly opposed him. Ultimately, under the patronage of Kashiraj, he was compelled to bring out the Nirayana Panchanga, which even today continues to be published with his name.

Though born in Maharashtra, Pt. Bapudeo Shastri had great affection for Kashi. Greatly impressed by the erudition of this scholar, the Maharaja of Kashmir requested him to come to his state on a monthly salary of Rs. one thousand. Bapudeo Shastri wrote back: " In ancient times the kings used to help the Brahmins for their stay in Kashi, but here you are intending to take me away from this holy city!"

Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi had also studied jyotisha in the same Government Sanskrit College of Varanasi. Greatly impressed by his brilliance in mathematics, Bapudeo Shastri once said: "In mathematics Shri Sudhakara is another Brihaspati." It was during Bapudeo Shastri's tenure that in 1883 Sudhakara Dvivedi was appointed Head of the Saraswati Bhavana, the library of the Sanskrit College. When Bapudeo Shastri retired from service in 1897 Sudhakara Dvivedi was appointed Head teacher of the Jyotish Department. Before that, in 1897, he was honoured by the Government with the 'Mahamahopadhyaya' title.

Sudhakara Dvivedi was born in1860 in. Khajuri village near Varanasi. There is an interesting story behind his name. A periodical named 'Sudhakara' had been published from Kashi since 1850. It so happened that the moment postman delivered the copy of the periodical to Sudhakara's uncle, news came from the inside of the house that his brother is the father of a boy. Thus, it was his uncle who named him Sudhakara.
Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi was a great scholar of Sanskrit and mathematical astronomy. He also knew English, French and Marathi very well. He edited and wrote Sanskrit commentaries on a large number of mathematicalastronomical works. He also wrote some books on modern mathematics. His main works are

• . Dirghavritta Lakshana : Properties of ellipse with their proofs.
• . Vichitra Prashna : 20 difficult questions of mathematics and their answers.
• . Dyucharachara: Deals with a planet's orbit according to modern astronomy.
• . Grahakarana: Explains the mathematics relating to eclipses.
• . Gotiya Rekhaganita : Spherical Geometry.
• . Translation in Sanskrit shtokas of the 6th, 11 th and 12th Books of Euclid.
• . Ganakatarangini: Describes the lives and works of Indian mathematicians and astronomers.

• Pratibodhaka commentary on the Yantraraja.
• Commentary on Bhaskaracharya's Litavati.
• Commentary on Bhaskaracharya's Bijaganita.
• Commentary on Bhaskaracharya's Karana-Kutuhata.
• Commentary on Varahamihira's Panchasiddhantika. This commentary was published in 1889 with English translation and introduction by Dr. George Thibaut, the then principal of the Sanskrit College.
• Commentary on Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta (628 AD.).
• Commentary on Aryabhata-ll's Mahasiddhanta ( 10th century AD.).
• Commentary on the Surya-Siddhanta. It was published in the 'Bibliotheca Indica' series in 1909-11. Its second edition was brought out by the Asiatic Society. Its new editition was published by the Sampurnananda Sanskrit University (the present name of the old Sanskrit College).
• Commentary on the Grahataghava with the commentaries of Mallari and Vishvanatha.
• Besides these works, Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi has edited and published Kamalakara's Siddhantatatvaviveka, Lalla's Shishyadhivriddhidtantra and Varahamihira's encyclopaedic work, the Brihat Samhita (with Bhattotpal's commentary).
   

Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi wrote the following Hindi books on mathematics -

• Chatana Katana (Differential Calculus).
• Chatarashi Katana (Integral Calculus).
• Samikarana Mimansa ( Theory of Equations)

It was Pt. Bapudeo Shastri who introduced the Chatana Katana and Chatarashi Katana words in Hindi. But the credit for propagating these words goes to Sudhakara Dvivedi. Dvivedi, an extempore poet, was a friend of the legendary Babu Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850-1885). He also prepared Bharatendu's janmapatri (horoscope), both with the sayana and nirayana systems. But, strange as it is, Pt. Sudhakara was not in favour of reforming the traditional Indian Panchangas. His opinion was that Panchangas, being based m tithis, must follow the system of the age-old SuryaSiddhanta!

Sudhakara Dvivedi was otherwise quite a progressive pandita. He openly admitted that the Siddhantic astronomers of ancient India had borrowed many things from the Greeks. Pt. Dvivedi passed away in 1922.
By editing, commenting on and publishing ancient India's so many astronomical and mathematical works, Pt. Sudhakara Dvivedi has rendered a singular service to our country and culture. Raja Manasingh of Amber had built a mansion (Manamandira) and a ghata on the bank of the Ganga in Varanasi. His descendant Sawai Raja Jai Singh built on the roof of the Manamandira an obsevatory (Vedhashala) around 1730 AD. Now, fittingly, that historical monument of Indian astronomy is known as the "Shri Sudhakara Dvivedi Vedhashala".